In the early Middle Ages, Pomerania attracted the attention of its neighbours, who sought to enrich themselves at its expense. Numerous expeditions were organised with the aim of plundering Pomeranian lands or incorporating the region into foreign state structures.
The Pomeranians were not passive: they too raided their neighbours. Their main enemies during this period were the Poles (on the landward side) and the Danes (from the sea). Time and again, the Pomeranians stirred unrest in the region. Their raids were usually of a plundering nature, but at times they managed to seize foreign territories.
As a result, the Polish-Pomeranian border in the early feudal period was fluid. When circumstances were favourable, the Pomeranians pushed their frontier far to the south; at other times the Piasts regained the strategic initiative, reclaiming lands previously conquered by their northern neighbours.
The Piast dynasty began its expansion northwards as early as the 10th century, ultimately incorporating all of Pomerania (both its eastern and western parts) into Poland. Yet at the beginning of the 11th century (in the time of Bolesław the Brave), the region regained its independence.
A Mysterious Ruler of Pomerania
It is unlikely that Mieszko II restored Polish supremacy over Pomerania during his short reign. Instead, the power of local Pomeranian princes strengthened.
Very little is known about them. German annals from Altaich in Bavaria mention one by name Zemuzil (Siemomysł). Some consider him the ruler of all Pomerania, though others limit his authority to the western part of the region.
Pomeranian Tactics in Gallus Anonymous’ Account
The struggles of Pomeranian warriors on land took two forms: open-field battles or sieges of enemy strongholds.
In the first case, Pomeranian tactics focused on avoiding major engagements in favour of small-scale operations—skirmishes conducted by small units that attempted to seize as much plunder as possible by surprise and then withdrew home.
In large battles against Piast forces, the Pomeranians generally suffered defeat. Such was the case in 1109, when Bolesław III Wrymouth appeared before Nakło on the Noteć River. According to Gallus Anonymous, the Polish prince, determined to seize the stronghold:
„(…) encamped around it with his army, attacking it with weapons and siege engines. The garrison, seeing that they could not withstand such a multitude [of troops] and expecting relief from their own princes, demanded a truce and set a deadline, after which, if no help should come, they would surrender themselves and the town to their enemies.”
Although the Poles agreed to suspend hostilities, they did not cease preparing for the assault. Meanwhile, the garrison’s envoys informed the Pomeranian army of the agreement. The Pomeranians, enraged by the news, swore to die for their homeland or defeat the Poles.
“Avoiding roads and paths, they forced their way through dense forests and wild beasts’ lairs, emerging from the woods like field mice from their burrows – not on the appointed day, but on the day dedicated to St Lawrence.”
“They drove their spears into the ground, pointing the blades at the enemy, and closed ranks so tightly that no one could break into their formation by sheer bravery alone, but only by cunning.”
As Gallus continues, they fought mostly on foot and were not arrayed in the Christian manner of battle. Instead, “like wolves lurking for sheep”, they knelt on the ground. While the enemy focused on the tireless Bolesław circling them like a bird, Skarbimir attacked from the opposite side, breaking into the densest part of their ranks. Surrounded and broken, the “barbarians” resisted fiercely at first but were eventually forced to flee.
Battle Techniques Against the Poles
From this account, we may conclude that Pomeranians formed tight infantry groups protected behind long spears. The first ranks knelt, bracing their spear shafts against the ground.
This method of fighting likely dominated Pomerania earlier as well (e.g., in the 11th century), since the Pomeranian army at the time consisted mainly of infantry. Their formation was a response to the Piasts’ use of cavalry—mounted units found it very difficult to break the first ranks and penetrate the enemy’s lines.
Pomeranians thus proved to be good observers, capable of devising tactics that neutralised the opponent’s advantages.
Cavalry in the Pomeranian Army
Alongside infantry, the Pomeranians also used cavalry in warfare. However, its role in the 11th century remained limited. At first, cavalry formed an elite troop used by the prince. Only later did it grow in importance, as confirmed by surviving sources.
Herbord wrote about the use of cavalry during a Pomeranian expedition against the Lutici. According to this 12th-century hagiographer, near Dymin – held by the Pomeranians – the “prince of Pomerania, intending to devastate the land of the Lutici, arrived with his army, which in the silence of night came upon the place with squadrons of cavalry.”
The Size of the Pomeranian Army: Rumours, Exaggerations, and Facts
Written sources suggest that the Pomeranians could muster from several thousand to several tens of thousands of warriors for war.
According to Gallus Anonymous, during the Mazovian campaign of 1109 they lost more than 600 men. In 1105, 3,000 Pomeranian troops appeared near Ruda. Four years later, at Nakło, they were said to have lost as many as 27,000. Herbord reports that 18,000 Pomeranians perished at Niekładź near Kołobrzeg.
Of these numbers, only two – 600 and 3,000 – seem plausible. The others are unrealistic and greatly exaggerated.
Medieval chroniclers, as Dariusz Wybranowski emphasised, treated numbers as a secondary matter- they were not concerned with mathematical precision in the modern sense.
Deceit and Treachery
Throughout the long Polish-Pomeranian conflicts, both sides most often fought near fortified strongholds. The Poles, launching raids against Pomeranian centres, tried to capture them by surprise. When this failed, they resorted to regular siege operations.
These confrontations were frequently accompanied by deceit and treachery – both among Poles and Pomeranians. The latter once seized Ujście by betrayal. During the rule of Władysław Herman, after defeating the Pomeranians, the duke:
“… seized their cities and strongholds inland and on the coast, installing his governors and counts in the most important and defensible places. And because he wished to remove from the pagans any desire for rebellion, he ordered his officers to burn all the strongholds in the interior on a set day and hour.”
This was done, yet even such measures failed to subdue the rebellious people. Some governors appointed by the powerful palatine Sieciech were killed, while others – of noble birth and better conduct -barely escaped with their lives thanks to the help of their relatives.
Overall, the Pomeranians, judging by the sparse but telling medieval references to their military organisation, were by no means an insignificant opponent for the Poles.
